African Americans in the Revolutionary War

Before the Revolutionary War even began, slaves started to realize that the promises to secure their freedom from England and reduce the amount of slaves were seemingly unlikely. The African Americans were segregated and determined as free or enslaved. The Atlantic Slave Trade was setup to be a successful business in the 18th century , it sent slaves to southern states that specialized in agriculture. Slavery in the North was also legal and accepted as well. However, some colonies did allow free African Americans. Even though they had their freedom, rights of these African Americans were still confined.Black Codes consisted of stipulations such as, prohibiting their right to vote, forbidding them to sit on juries, and not allowing them the ability to testify against a white person in court. These codes made it hard to really feel like they had freedom and were in no way shape or form equal to a free white American. At the beginning of the American Revolution, African Americans were d emanded to choose whether to rebel, or to stay committed to the crown. Many African American slaves fought with Britain in the war because they were promised their freedom once again.A significant amount of African American slaves died during the Revolution, some of them got away but not very many. In the United States at this time, about 95% of the African Americans living here were enslaved. They were used by the white Americans during the war because of this. In 1777 George Washington approved the right for African American slaves to enlist, but only a small percentage actually did. A lot of the Northerners thought that the south using slaves on the front line was cruel and that the south needed their slaves in order to continue growing their economy.This made the South seem incompetent without their slaves. The African Americans fought for the United States and England. This was not right to use them and the British even used their heads to make them join and fight against the U nited States. The African Americans could win their freedom and go against their masters. Crispus Attucks was a black man who was considered the first death of the American Revolution. He yelled out â€Å"Don’t be afraid! †, and led a group of protesters against the British soldiers. I believe that the Boston Massacre was one of the final straws for the need of independence.An African American named Paul Cuffe, helped the American colonies by supplying them with goods and sneaking them past British ships. Another African American who was a minute man during the Boston Massacre was Lemuel Haynes. Salem Poor was one of the African American soldiers who fought at Bunker Hill. It is said that he shot Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombie, a British officer. Prince Whipple was born in Africa and sold into American slavery at a young age. His master was William Whipple who he fought alongside in the war, but even though he did this he remained a slave throughout the revolutio n.He was was one of the 20 African American slaves who signed the New Hamshire Legislature which was asking for the elimination of slavery within this state. African-Americans were a very helpful and prominent part in fighting at Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill. James Armistead successfully petitioned his master to allow him to serve with the Marquis de LaFayette and he became a double agent in General LaFayette's service. He pretended to be a Loyalist slave spying on the Americans and invaded the Bristish General, Charles Cornwallis’s headquarters.All of the knowledge he gave to LaFayette helped the Americans win at the battle of Yorktown. LaFayette was so impressed with his doing that he actually petitioned the Virginia legislature to give him his freedom. When Lafayette saw Armistead in a crowd he called him by name and hugged him in public. James Armistead’s accomplishments in the revolution were so prominent and uplifting. My favorite African American idol dur ing the revolution to learn about is Phillis Wheatley. Not only because she is an intelligent and fortifying women but also for her poetry and strength to find a passion during these times.She was the first African American woman to have her work published as an American poet. . She was born in Gambia, Africa as a slave child and took her name from the Phillis, the slave ship that brought her to Boston and from her master, John Wheatley. Wheatley was a huge supporter of America freedom as well as African American slaves freedom. She published a collection of poems including one that was a memorial for the Boston Massacre. Phillis also wrote a poem for George Washington that she mailed to Cambridge, Massachusetts, the headquarters for the commander in chief.Washington happily replied with an invitation to come and visit him. She accepted immediately and met with him in Cambridge. George Washington also passed her story and excitement on to someone he knew in the publishing industry, and her poem was printed several times for the patriot cause. Phillis Wheatley was one of the most renowned poets of the eighteenth century. She was the first African-American to publish a book of imaginative writing and the first to start the African-American literary tradition.She combined religion and neo-classicism in her poems and most of her poems propose an escape from slavery. She rejoices death and the rewards and liberty of life after death. Mary Wheatley, the daughter of the family, taught her Latin, religion, English and literature. Apparently brilliant and with an ability for learning, Phillis became fluent in English. She was able to read passages from the bible and also showed interest towards astronomy, geography, history, Latin and Greek classics and British literature. Soon enough she was considered as a full-fledged poet in the art.Wheatley was influenced by the religious beliefs of her master and hence accepted Christianity as her religion. Her story is so outsta nding to me and the most powerful and prominent of them all. Even though she wasn’t actually fighting in the revolutionary war she was making a difference in history, fighting for what she believed in and following her heart and passion. To me this is just as worthy as enlisting in the war. In many ways, George Washington himself embodied the Revolution's mixed message for African Americans.Like many of the Founding Fathers, Washington owned slaves throughout his life and was influenced by contemporary racist views about African inferiority. Initially opposed to black enlistment in the Continental Army, Washington reluctantly agreed to allow certain free blacks to fight after Lord Dunmore's proclamation threatened to bring black patriots over to the British cause. In time the valor of his patriotic black soldiers and his friendship with antislavery advocates such as the Marquis de LaFayette convinced Washington that slavery was economically unsound as well as morally wrong.Ye t he maintained an ambiguous stance toward the institution, anxious to avoid fracturing the delicate sectional balance crafted at the Constitutional Convention. Washington's relationship with African Americans, like that of the new nation itself, was contradictory. He believed in â€Å"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness† but signed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793, he viewed slavery as a moral evil but did not free his own slaves until after his death. This is baffling to me.Over five thousand African Americans had a role in the fight for the Independence of United States. I believe that the African Americans played just as big of a role in the Revolution as every other white American soldier. Works Cited http://fas-history. rutgers. edu/clemens/AfricanAmericansRevolution. html http://www2. coloradocollege. edu/Dept/HY/HY243Ruiz/Research/revolution. html http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/learning_history/revolution/revolution_slavery. cfm

A Young Lady With Feet Swelling Health And Social Care Essay

A 29-year-old Indonesian domestic assistant, Ms MH, was admitted to medical section, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, complaining of bilateral pess and mortise joints swelling and bubbling piss for 1 hebdomad. There was no hematuria, dysuria, urinary frequence, urgency, febrility, joint hurting, tegument roseolas, sore pharynx, recent upper respiratory piece of land symptoms or GI symptoms. She denied taking any herbs or nonprescription medicines. Her past medical history and household history were everyday. She was a non-smoker, and denied history of unprotected sex. She recalled that her first twenty-four hours of last catamenial period was approximately 2 hebdomads before the admittance. On scrutiny, she was afebrile, with bosom rate 103 beats per minute and blood force per unit area 144/71mmHg. She had periorbital hydrops, facial swelling and opposing hydrops of 4 limbs. There was no lividness. Her fundoscopic scrutiny was normal. Jugular venous force per unit area was elevated. On ausc ultation, her thorax was clear, her bosom beat was regular with a non-displaced cardiac vertex, and there was no bosom mutter. Abdominal scrutiny did non uncover any abdominal mass or bruit. She did non hold any skin roseolas or joint puffiness. Dipstick uranalysis showed 3+blood, 2+protein, and negative for glucose. Urine gestation trial was negative. Her blood trial showed normochromic, normocystic anemia ( haemoglobin degree 10.5g/dL ) and deranged nephritic map trial ( serum creatinine: 168i? ­mol/L ) . Her white cell count was 10.4 ten 10^9/L, the albumin degree was 24g/L and the liver map trial was normal. Her serum entire cholesterin degree was 5.2mmol/L, low denseness lipoprotein degree was 3.7mmol/L and fasting plasma glucose was 4.5mmol/L. The everyday microscopy of piss was positive for ruddy blood cell, ruddy cell dramatis personae, and was negative for white blood cell. The urine sum protein was 1.13g/day and the creatinine clearance was 10 mL/min. Mid-stream piss for civilization was negative. The clinical image was compatible with nephritic syndrome or quickly progressive glomerulonephritis ( RPGN ) , and anemia. Further probes showed that serum anti-nuclear antibodies ( ANA ) , antineutrophil cytoplasmatic antibodies ( ANCA ) , anti-streptolysin O ( ASO ) antibody, and anti-glomerular cellar membrane ( anti-GBM ) antibody titres were undetectable. Serum C3 and C4 complement degrees were normal. Hepatitis B surface antigen, anti-hepatitis C virus antibody, serum cryoglobulin and blood civilization were negative. Ultrasound scan of nephritic system revealed normal-sized kidneys with increased echogenicity, which was suggestive of nephritic parenchymal disease. Nephritic biopsy confirmed Immunoglobulin ( Ig ) A nephropathy. The reticulocyte count was normal, peripheral vilification showed mild poikilocytosis, and serum Fe profile was non implicative of Fe lack. Faecal supernatural blood trials were negative in all of the 3 stool specimens. Serum and urine paraprotein were n egative, and bone marrow scrutiny showed active marrow. Ms. MH was given low dose frusemide for diagnostic alleviation of peripheral hydrops, and was given angiotensin change overing enzyme inhibitor ( ACEI ) for control of blood force per unit area. She was assessed by nephrologist and was suggested to go on these medicines, and to mention to renal clinic for consideration of steroid therapy when serum creatinine is on increasing tendency or when albuminuria progresses to nephrotic scope. She tolerated the medicines and was on a regular basis followed up in the medical out-patient clinic. Discussion ** ( entire words for instance history and treatment must be 1000-2000 ) : Ms MH, a healthy 29-year-old lady, presented with 1 hebdomad history of dependent hydrops, high blood pressure, microscopic hematuria, and a low grade of albuminuria ( urine sum protein: 1.13g/day ) . Urine microscopy revealed white blood cell, ruddy blood cell and ruddy cell dramatis personae. This clinical image is compatible with glomerulonephritis, which can be loosely classified into renal-limited primary glomerulonephritis or secondary glomerulonephritis perplexing systemic disease. Further blood trial for serologic markers of glomerulonephritis, viz. ANA, ANCA, anti-GBM antibody, ASO titres, hepatitis serology, blood civilizations and cryoglobulin titres were undetectable, therefore excepting secondary glomerulonephritis. Nephritic biopsy remains the gilded criterion for unequivocal diagnosing of glomerulonephritis. The biopsy specimen can be examined under the light microscopy in order to find the primary histopathological hurt to the uriniferous tubule. Under light microscopy, immunofluorescence survey is able to place three major forms of deposition of Ig, viz. farinaceous, additive and dearth of immunofluorescence staining. Farinaceous deposition of Ig is a trademark of immune complex glomerulonephritis. Linear deposition of Ig along the glomerular cellar membrane is characteristic of anti-GBM disease. Dearth of Ig and positive circulating ANCA represent glomerulonephritis caused by ANCA-related vasculitis. ( 1 ) Ms MH was eventually diagnosed to hold IgA kidney disease, which is the commonest cause of primary glomerulonephritis throughout the universe. ( 2 ) Typical oncoming of the disease is in the 2nd and 3rd decennaries of life, as manifested by our instance. Majority of patients are diagnosed during an rating for symptomless microscopic hematuria or mild albuminurias. Macroscopic, and frequently perennial, hematuria that occurs shortly after an upper respiratory tract infection is a authoritative but less common presentation. Patient with IgA kidney disease may besides presented with nephrotic-range albuminurias, RPGN or, seldom, malignant high blood pressure. ( 3,4 ) As demonstrated by our instance, the complement degree is typically normal in IgA nephropathy. Light-microscopically, IgA nephropathy can change from mild mesangial proliferation and enlargement to spread proliferation with glomerular crescents. Immunofluorescence staining typically showed farinaceous deposition of Ig, decl arative mood of immune complex glomerulonephritis. ( 1 ) Ms MH was put on ACEI for blood force per unit area control. There are groundss that patterned advance of IgA kidney disease may be slowed by ACEI and angiotonin II receptor blockers ( ARB ) . ( 5,6 ) The drugs act by cut downing the intra-glomerular force per unit area and by straight bettering the size-selective belongingss of the glomerular capillary wall, lending to their anti-hypertensive and anti-proteinuric consequence. ( 1 ) In a randomized controlled test, 44 patients with biopsy-proven IgA kidney disease, proteinuria more than or equal to 0.5 gram/d, and serum creatinine less that or equal to 1.5 mg/dL ( 133 umol/L ) were indiscriminately assigned either to have Vasotec or to a control group in whom blood force per unit area was controlled with anti-hypertensives other than ACEI or ARB. At followup of about seven old ages, nephritic endurance, defined as lupus erythematosus that a 50 per centum addition in the serum creatinine concentration, was significantly more likely in the Vasotec group than in the control group: 92 % versus 55 % ( p & A ; lt ; 0.05 ) . There was a important lessening in albuminuria in the Vasotec group, whereas an addition in albuminuria was observed in the control group ( P & A ; lt ; 0.001 between groups ) . Control of blood force per unit area was similar in the two groups. In decision, ACEI significantly improves nephritic endurance in proteinuric IgA kidney disease with norm al or reasonably impaired nephritic map. ( 5 ) High blood pressure, albuminuria of more than 1 gram per twenty-four hours, impaired nephritic map at the clip of diagnosing, relentless microscopic hematuria, and high glomerular histopathological tonss stand out as consistent and strong forecasters of hapless nephritic endurance harmonizing to literatures and cohort surveies from around the universe. ( 3,7,8 ) Ms MH demonstrates the first three hapless predictive factors of the above list and therefore she is expected to be at hazard of holding progressive disease in following few old ages. IgA kidney disease is a global disease and the cause of end-stage nephritic failure in 15-20 per centum of patients within 10 old ages and in 30 to 40 per centum of persons within 20 old ages from evident oncoming of disease. Harmonizing to Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews in the 3rd one-fourth of 2009, the optimum direction of IgA nephropathy remains unsure. Consequences from small-scaled randomised controlled tests favoured the usage of immunosuppressive intercessions, with the most promising agent being steroids, which were associated with a lower hazard of patterned advance to end-stage nephritic failure ( comparative hazard [ RR ] 0.44, 95 % assurance interval [ CI ] 0.25 to 0.8 ) and lower urinary protein elimination ( leaden mean difference [ WMD ] -0.49 g/day, 95 % CI -0.72 to -0.120 ) . Urinary protein elimination was lower for patients treated with alkylating agents or cyclosporin compared to placebo or no intervention. Further survey is necessary to determine which pa tients would profit from these intercessions. ( 9 ) Tables and figures ( non more than 2 ) : Reference ( non more than 10 ) : ** Brady HR, O'Meara YM, Brenner BM. Glomerular diseases. In: Kasper DL, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, et Al, explosive detection systems. Harrison ‘s rules of internal medical specialty, 16th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005:1674-94. Julian BA, Waldo FB, Rifai A, Mestecky J. IgA kidney disease, the most common glomerulonephritis worldwide. A ignored disease in the United States? Am J Med, 1988 ; 84:129-132. Donadio JV, Grande JP. IgA nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2002 ; 347:738-48. Li PKT, Lai KN. IgA nephropathy in Hong Kong. Journal of the Hong Kong Medial Association, 1989 ; 1:93-5. Praga M, Gutierrez E, Gonzalez E, Morales E. Treatment of IgA nephropathy with ACE inhibitors: A randomized and controlled test. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2003 ; 14:1578-83. Li PK, Leung CB, Chow KM, Cheng YL, Fung SK, Mak SK, Tang AW, Wong TY, Yung CY, Yung JC, Yu AW, Szeto CC ; HKVIN Study Group. Hong Kong survey utilizing Diovans in IgA nephropathy ( HKVIN ) : a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled survey. Am J Kidney Dis, 2006 ; 47:751-60. Li J, Zhang H, Zhou Y, Li G, Zou W, Wang H. Natural history of Ig A kidney disease and prognostic factors of forecast: a long-run follow up of 204 instances in China. Nephrology, 2008 ; 13:242-6. Chacko B, John GT, Neelakantan N, Korula A, Balakrishnan N, Kirubakaran MG, Jacob CK. Presentation, forecast and result of IgA kidney disease in Indian grownups. Nephrology, 2005 ; 10:496-503 Barkat R, Molony DA, Samuels JA. Immunosuppressive agents for handling IgA kidney disease. Cochrane Database of systematic Reviews. 3rd One-fourth, 2009No of words ( excepting mentions ) : ____1260 _____**The instance study will be REJECTED if the campaigners fail to adhere to the above format.DeclarationI do solemnly and unfeignedly declare that the instance study submitted represents my ain work. I have been in clinical contact with the instance selected. The instance study has non been submitted to any assessment board or publication and it is NOT related to my 2nd forte ( Internet Explorers ) , if any. My consent is herewith given to the College to maintain a transcript of my instance study, in written and/or electronic, at the College Secretariat and let the populace to hold free entree to the work for mention.______________________( Signed by _______________ )

50 Ways to Combat Climate Change

Climate change is something that has been on the radar of people worldwide since the 1980's, when the hole in the ozone layer of Antarctica was discovered. Are we doing enough to reduce climate change, and reverse the effects of global warming? While it might be nearly impossible to reverse climate change, we can try to slow down the effects of climate change. On this page, you can find earth friendly tips on reducing your carbon footprint, from greening your vacations to recycling, reducing your energy use at home to helping promote sustainable forestry. . Eat less meat, and eat more vegetables. Cattle are one of the largest producers of methane, a gas that helps contribute to global warming. Cut back on the meat, and you'll be contributing to less methane. 2. Use a more energy efficient vehicle to reduce emissions and oil use. The Toyota Prius always tops the list of most efficient cars, but don't forget the Accord, Sanata, and Jetta. 3. Plant a tree on your own, or in Brazil. You can make donations to help plant trees far away, or plant one locally to help produce more oxygen and filter our air. 4.Take public transportation. Even if you only take public transportation once a week or once a month, you're lessening potential emissions that contribute to climate change. 5. Turn the temperature down on your thermostat to save energy. Any energy you save lessens the amount of fossil fuels used at energy plants. 6. In the warmer months, use window and fan ventilation over air conditioning when possible instead of air conditioning (in your car, too). 7. Purchase recycled products, like recycled paper and recycled plastic toys. 8. Reuse things in your life.Even recycling takes some amount of energy to transform a material into something else. By reusing, there's no transformation or emissions involved, just a little brain power. 9. Buy locally, from farmers markets, locally grown shops, and even in the grocery store to lessen transport energy. Aim to buy your produc e where it's grown closest to you (it often tastes much better this way, too). 10. Start an herb garden or veggie garden. Nothing tastes fresher, it will save you money, and you won't have to drive in the car to get your herbs and veggies.Very little energy consumed! 11. Unplug energy suckers when they aren't in use. Your appliances, toasters, computers, televisions and cellphone charges all use energy just by being plugged in. So, save energy by unplugging! 12. Use CFL bulbs to reduce electricty usage. They save you money, save the environment, and even glow brighter. 13. Bring your own reusable bags to reduce climate change. Bring them to the grocery store and anywhere else you go shopping. If you have a single item and don't need a bag, don't take one. 14.Drink tap water over bottled water. Bottled water costs more, takes more energy to create, and to transport. In most circumstances, tap water is cleaner than bottled water. 15. Think about using reusable diapers to prevent diape rs from decomposing in a landfill. Disposable diapers take up approximately 4% of landfill space, and take hundreds of years to decompose. 16. Use a zero voc paint when painting a room in your home. The VOCs found in traditional paints can be hazardous for you and the ozone. 17. Switch to paperless billing.It's a benefit for the companies, but a great benefit for the environment, too. It's also nice to not be inundated with bills in the mail. 18. Bring your own reusable take out container. These small styrofoam containers really add up! 19. Bring your own reusable container and reusable bag for lunch. 20. Use less resources and energy when you travel by having a green vacation. 21. When you buy anything, buy for the long term instead of the short term. Buy a product that is going to last for a long time, instead of buying the disposable or short term version.A good example is clothing. Higher quality brands will last much longer and hold up better, while cheaper brands often only ge t a few short wears. 22. Support clean energy to reduce climate change, as well as other renewable resources like wind energy and geothermal. 23. Get healthier. By eating less food and exercising more, you'll be consuming less packaging, throwing away less, creating less waste, spending less, going to the doctor's less, and living longer. 24. Take a slightly less warm shower. Heating water is one of the most energy consuming parts of our lives.Warm showers feel great, but reducing the amount of time in the shower and the temperature by just a small amount can make a big difference. Taking cooler showers can also give you better skin. 25. Buy products with less packaging. The less packaing, the less you'll throw away into our landfills. 26. Turn off your cellphone and other electronics at night to cut back on electricity. 27. Try a low energy cold water wash, combined with hanging clothes on the clothesline. 28. Use energy efficient washers and dryers. The savings on your utilities l one will be substantial, but the benefit to the earth will be greater. 29. Reduce junk mail that comes to your home by following these simple steps. 30. Reduce the amount of aersols, candles, and perfumes used by switching to natural perfumes and natural room fresheners. 31. Learn how to recycle things in your life. Start with the obvious choices like cans and bottles, then get more serious (curbside pickup makes it very easy). 32. Save gas and money by carpoolling. The savings will add up, you'll have someone to talk to, and you'll be helping the slow down climate change. 3. Consolidate errands and plan your route to save gas. 34. Order online orders in bulk. When things are shipped together, less packaging and energy is used (and it's cheaper, usually). 35. Buy used and buy repurposed. This prevents new products from being made (and fossil fuels from being burned), helping the environment. 36. Use a reusable product to clean your home instead of disposable paper towels, like reusa ble paper towels, sponges and cloths. 37. Sell your stuff on Ebay, try to throw away less. 38. Donate your stuff instead of throwing it away. 39.Compost to reduce climate change by reducing trash in landfill spaces. 40. Camp out on vacation instead of staying in a hotel and enjoy the outdoors (without the TV and A/C). 41. Go digital and online with more things in your life, like photos, using ecards instead of ecards, and ebooks. There's the Kindle for wireless reading, free ecards, and many free photo hosting websites to store your photos online. 42. Schedule online meetings to save on flights and travel expenses, as well as transport energy. 43. Bring your own reusable to-go coffee cup to the cafe instead of taking a disposable one. 4. Help protect our forests so that the forests can help combat climate change. 45. Recycle packaging instead of throwing it away. Donate it to a local UPS store or post it on Craigslist. 46. Encourage and become involved in reforestation to slow clima te change. 47. Buy sustainable wood, repurposed wood, or a used wood product for furniture purchases. 48. Consider Ecycling your computers and electronics instead of throwing them away. 49. Swap clothing, toys and books with neighboring parents and friends instead of buying new ones. 50. Most importantly, educate others about climate change.

Sustainable Tourism Development

This article was downloaded by: [113. 210. 1. 106] On: 22 March 2013, At: 07:28 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Sustainable Tourism Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www. tandfonline. com/loi/rsus20 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Jackie Clarke Version of record first published: 29 Mar 2010.To cite this article: Jackie Clarke (1997): A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5:3, 224-233 To link to this article: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09669589708667287 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www. tandfonline. com/page/ terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, lo an, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Jackie ClarkeSchool of Business, Oxford Brooks University, Wheatley Campus, Wheatley, Oxford OX33 1HX Based on an extensive literature review, this paper proposes a framework of approaches to sustainable tourism. The framework is composed of four positions, chronologically sequenced according to th e dominant understanding of sustainable tourism as a possession or goal. The positions are those of polar opposites, continuum, movement and convergence. The framework offers insights into the development of the sustainable tourism concept and enables identification of an author’s approach to the concept. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013Introduction The understanding of sustainable tourism has developed from the early ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable tourism’ debate, to the acceptance that research energy should be channelled into practical ways of assisting all forms of tourism to move towards sustainability. The fundamental difference is the assumption of the former, that sustainable tourism is, in some manner, already a possession of certain types of tourism or situation, against the acknowledgement of the latter, that sustainable tourism is not an inherent characteristic of any existing form or situation, but a goal that all touris m must strive to achieve.The tremendous volume of output on the subject over the last decade (Brown, 1991) has contributed to the recognised ambiguity in terminology (Beioley, 1995; De Kadt, 1990; Lanfant & Graburn, 1992; Murphy, 1994; Pearce, 1992, etc. ) and the surfeit of labels. For example, ecotourism has no unequivocal usage. It has been expressed as a symbiotic relationship between tourism and nature conservation (Farrell & Runyan, 1991; Valentine, 1993), been equated with nature tourism (Boo, 1990), and constructed as a Venn diagram (Buckley, 1993; Wight, 1995). Occasionally, labels are combined to produce hybrids (see, for example, Dernoi, 1988; Wight,l995).As a concept, sustainable tourism is still evolving. A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Based on a critical literature review of both academic and industry contributions, the proposed framework comprises four positions of understanding of sustainable tourism. These four positions:  · are broadly chronolog ical, reflecting the dominant approach to sustainable tourism and offering insights into the concept’s development;  · provide a structure within which an author’s approach to the concept may be identified, affording insights for literature reviews.The framework is envisaged as complementary to other work (see, for example, Cazes, 1989; Pearce, 1992). As early literature commonly fixed on scale as the distinguishing feature, this is the unifying theme for the framework. As a 0966-9582/97/03 0224-10 $10. 00/0 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM  ©1997 J. Clarke Vol. 5, No. 3, 1997 224 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 225 criterion, scale has shifted from an emotive or even antagonistic role to neutral ground. An overview of the framework shows the positions forming two pairs.The first pair regard sustainable tourism as a current possession of a particular scale of tourism, whilst the second pair treat the phenomenon as a goal to be striven for. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 The first position of polar opposites A term adapted from Pearce (1992), the first, and probably the earliest of the four positions, was that of mass tourism and sustainable tourism conceived as polar opposites (see Figure 1). Alternative tourism was the popular label for sustainable tourism, mutual exclusion being implicit in the term.As a force, sustainable tourism was understood to be pulling away from mass tourism, which served as a point of repulsion (for commentary, see Butler, 1991; Cazes, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987; Nash, 1992; Richter, 1987; Travis, 1988; Valentine, 1993). Thus, sustainable tourism and mass tourism were stereotyped as the ‘good’ and the ‘bad’. The negative social and environmental impacts experienced at destinations were attributed solely to mass tourism, which was couched in emotive terms such s ‘hard’, ‘ghetto’, or ‘destructive’ tourism. Of course, mass tourism also related to scale, and the scale of the tourism involved was the principal defining characteristic for the polar opposite approach. Wheeller (199la) summarised scale as the focal point: the traveller is preferred to the tourist, the individual to the group, specialist operators rather than the large firms, indigenous accommodation to multi-national hotel chains, small not large — essentially good versus bad. Wheeller, l991a, author’s emphasis) Representing mass tourism, a Director of the Thomson Travel Group lampooned the approach by recounting his situation as an ecotourism speaker at a Royal Geographical Society gathering as being: rather like a cattle baron addressing a congress of vegetarians. (Brackenbury, 1992: l0) At its most extreme, advocates of alternative tourism pressed for a total replacement of mass tourism (cited in De Kadt, l990, 1992; Lanfant & Graburn, 1992) and of Cohen’s (1972) institutionalised tourist.Arguably, the position of polar opposites was strengthened by the presentation of mass versus sustainable characteristics in diametrically opposed tables (see, for example, Krippendorf, 1982; WTO, 1989). Such tables were developed into concrete notions of ‘bad’ versus ‘good’ (see Lane, 1989, 1990). ‘Mass tourism’ Conceptual barrier ‘Sustainable tourism’ Figure 1 Position 1: polar opposites 226 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Thus the earliest understanding of sustainable tourism was one of a dichotomised position.Believers in the polar opposite approach clearly regarded sustainable tourism as a possession of an existing type of tourism based on small scale characteristics. Ownership was claimed by tourism forms opposed to mass tourism. In short, small was synonymous with sustainable. Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 The second position of a continuum By the 1990s, the original position of polar opposites was generally rejected as u nproductive, but the notion of a continuum between sustainable tourism and mass tourism presented a flexible adaptation of the earlier ideas (see Figure 2).In recognition that sustainable tourism utilised the infrastructure, transport and reservation systems of mass tourism (see De Kadt, 1990, 1992; Krippendorf, 1987; Wheeller, l991a), spawned an accompanying tourism industry structure (see Cohen, 1987, 1989; Krippendorf, 1987), and had the potential to develop into mass tourism if not properly managed (Butler, 1990, 1992; Tourism Concern, 1992), the simplicity of polar opposites was adjusted to a continuum between the two extremes. Variations were appropriately placed along the spectrum (see, for example, Davidson, 1992).Although allowing some measure of degree, the continuum understanding of sustainable tourism still regarded the phenomenon as a possession and used scale as the defining criterion. Polar opposites and continuum therefore formed a natural pair. However, the continuu m approach to sustainable tourism was only ever loosely established; understanding was moving in a new direction. ‘Mass tourism’ ‘Sustainable tourism’ Figure 2 Position 2: continuum Criticisms: too simple, too impractical Criticisms and queries have been voiced over these early approaches to sustainable tourism.The idea of polar opposites representing ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ was denounced as ‘grossly misleading’ (Butler, 1990). Most criticisms related to one or both of the following:  · Too simple: the inadequate appreciation of tourism as a dynamic and complex phenomenon resulting in the inherent flaws in this understanding of sustainable tourism.  · Too impractical: the question of scale and the inability of this narrow view of sustainable tourism to offer practical solutions to the global problem of the burgeoning volume of tourist arrivals.Tourism is a complex and dynamic phenomenon (Heath & Wall, 1992; Przeclawski , 1993), yet sustainable tourism from the polar opposite and continuum positions assumed a homogeneity and simplicity in conflict with reality (Cooper et al. , 1993). Faced with the dramatic growth in international tourism from the 25 million trips of 1950 (WTO, 1993) to the 531 million of 1994 (WTO, 1995a) and its continued predicted growth (WTO, l995b), the replacement of mass tourism with the sustainable tourism promoted by the two positions was illogical. Being small scale, sustainable tourism lacked the capability (Butler,A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 227 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 1990; Cohen, 1987; Cooper et al. , 1993; Fennell & Smale, 1992; Pearce, 1992). Sustainable tourism could neither manage the number of arrivals nor replace the economic benefits accrued (Butler, 1992; Cohen, 1987). For Wheeller (1990, l991a, l991b), the idea was a ‘micro solution’ struggling with a ‘macro problem’. Furthermore, this understanding was inward-looking, failing to recognise the importance of other industry sectors and the wider perspective of sustainable development (Hunter, 1995).Indeed, the second pair of positions better demonstrate the influence of the sustainable development landmarks that shaped the concept (for example, IUCN, 1980, 1991; The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987; the GLOBE ’90 and ’92 conferences; The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development with Agenda 21). Other criticisms concerned issues such as elitism (Cazes, 1989; Richter, 1987), the problems of ensuring local ownership and control (Cater, 1992), and inbalances in power (Wheeller, 1990, l991a, l991b).Butler (1990) argued that the approach to sustainable tourism portrayed a static picture of impacts. The revision of features related to time and process produced a less flattering scenario (Butler, 1990). For example, the more intense contact between host and guest over a longer duration resulted in greater damage to the fragile host culture than was readily apparent in the ‘good’ versus ‘bad’ tables. The emergence of these tables was partly a response to an over-simplistic interpretation of Krippendorf’s work (1982, 1987). Krippendorf (1987) was not opposed to mass tourism as long as it progressed towards ‘harmonious’ tourism.In fact, he urged that: only if we succeed in living with tourism as a mass phenomenon, ? , can we claim to have made a decisive step forward, (Krippendorf, 1982: 111, author’s emphasis) an assertion often overlooked by proponents of a polar opposite or continuum approach. The third position of movement Criticisms of the earlier understandings of sustainable tourism, coupled with a closer alignment to sustainable development, resulted in the demand to change mass tourism to more sustainable forms (see, for example, Bramwell, 1991; Butler, 1990, 1991; Cohen, 1987; De Kadt, 1 990; GLOBE, 1990; EIU, 1992).If the main problem of modern tourism is that of its huge number, (Krippendorf, 1987: 42, author’s emphasis) then mass tourism was the most visible and sensible candidate for initial reform. The sustainable tourism as understood under movement differed from the earlier definitions of sustainable tourism on three key dimensions:  · The issue of scale became more objective and less emotive. Mass tourism became the subject for improvement, rather than the derided villain.  · Sustainable tourism became the goal for attainment, rather than the possession of an existing scale of tourism. Operationalising current knowledge to move towards the goal became the 228 Journal of Sustainable Tourism (’mass tourism’) Large scale tourism Sustainable Tourism Goal Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Figure 3 Position 3: movement practical focus of effort, rather than the ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable tourismâ€⠄¢ debate of previous years. Figure 3 illustrates the understanding of sustainable tourism by movement advocates. As a label, large scale tourism is preferred to mass tourism, for it sheds the negative connotations.Viewed objectively, large scale tourism possesses strengths which could be used to advantage:  · The environment is attacked by other industries, such as mining and manufacturing (EIU, 1992; McKercher, 1993), and tourism is dependent on environmental quality. The tourism industry must protect its assets; size is important, as large players exert pressure through lobbying power.  · Large scale operators have the marketing and communication skills, plus contact opportunities in bulk, to actively foster interest in sustainable tourism amongst the millions of consumers who purchase their products. Large size confers influence over suppliers and distributors, which could be used as a persuasive force for the introduction of sustainable policies along the supply chain. Of c ourse, there are less altruistic reasons for large scale tourism to instigate movement towards the sustainable tourism goal. The imposition of environmental regulatory control by governments grappling with world problems of acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global warming require a minimum response of compliance.From the demand side, the rise of consumer interest in green issues (see ETB, 1992a, 1992b; Green, 1990) provides the classic incentive of consumer needs. The interest expressed by consumers through financial institutions in environmental practices is a further motive. There are over thirty an ag em en im ts pa ct ys -e as nv ses tem iro nm s s – re ent men use t al Guid , re au eline cyc di s for le, red t susta uce inab le to urism Equity Company/organisation focus ta lm s pac im cts al pa lob G im al sic y ph al/ gic olo Ec (’sustainable tourism’) Small scale tourism iro nm en En v -e nv iro nm e nt al A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Touri sm 229 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 environmental or ethical funds in the United Kingdom, representing approximately ? 750 million of investment; according to independent financial advisors Holden Meehan (1994), the idea of ‘profit with principle’ has moved from the fringe to the mainstream.Investors are stakeholders requiring satisfaction. There are many examples of large scale tourism proactively moving towards the goal of sustainable tourism (see Middleton & Hawkins, 1993, 1994; WTTERC, 1991–1994). British Airways was one of the first tourism companies to publish an environmental report (British Airways, 1991), the International Hotels Environment Initiative was a sector-specific project (Van Praag, 1992), whilst the ‘Green Globe’ programme was targeted across the tourism sectors (WTTERC, 1994).The World Travel & Tourism Council, a coalition of Chief Executive Officers from international tourism companies, established th e World Travel & Tourism Environment Research Centre (WTTERC) to monitor, assess and communicate objectives, strategies and action programmes in respect of environmental management (WTTERC, 1992). Over one hundred guidelines and codes of practice relating to tourism were identified (WTTERC, 1993); the environmental guidelines of the WTTERC itself provide a useful synopsis of the large scale understanding of sustainable tourism (WTTERC, 1992).As Figure 3 demonstrates, the focus of this approach is on the physical/ecological environment, with an emphasis on environmental management systems, incorporating techniques such as environmental audits of products, processes and issues, and environmental impact assessments. The fourth position of convergence The framework culminates in a position of convergence (see Figure 4). This position represents the latest understanding of sustainable tourism as a goal that all tourism, regardless of scale, must strive to achieve (see, for example, Inske ep, 1991).Accepting that the concept of sustainable tourism is still evolving, the absence of a precise goal definition is less important than general movement in the correct direction. Appreciating the wider role of sustainable development, this final position recognises two interpretations of sustainable tourism. The large scale interpretation of sustainable tourism (as portrayed in position three) has a dominantly physical/ecological perspective expressed as a business orientation. The small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism offers a social slant from a local or destination platform.It is akin to the understanding of sustainable tourism as alternative tourism under position one, except for the crucial recognition of the concept as a goal rather than a possession. Both interpretations:  · focus on the implementation of their current knowledge of sustainable tourism to move towards the ultimate goal of sustainability;  · seek future progress towards the desired goal t hrough the twin processes of further development of ideas inherent in their own interpretation and by adaptation of ideas found in the other.Together, this results in convergence towards the goal of sustainable tourism. For example, in this quest, large scale tourism is experimenting with techniques for inducing shifts in tourist behaviour compatible with environmentallyfriendly travel, an educational component instigated by the small scale enterprises. Thomsons now provide environmental guidelines for guests; TUI 230 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Large scale tourism al nm vi ro En Figure 4 Position 4: convergence ave produced an environment ranking for products featured in all their mainstream Euro-brochures. In turn, small scale enterprises are learning about the development of effective environmental management systems, originally the territory of large scale organisations. In the UK, the environmental audit was promoted fo r small scale concerns by the West Country Tourist Board’s (1993) ‘Green Audit Kit’; the project was then taken nationwide. In addition, by embracing sustainable development, both interpretations are receptive to further ideas generated from outside the tourism sector.Like large scale tourism (see position three), the small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism has produced guidelines and codes of good practice (see, for example, ETB, 1991; Countryside Commission, 1991; Green, 1990), established destination-based projects (for example, the Devon-based Tarka Project) and offered and disseminated advice to interested parties (ETB, 1992a, 1992b, 1993). -e nv iro nm en ta l en t im g olo Ec m an ag em y ph al/ ic al sic en ts pa ct ys -e as nv s e s te m ir o nm sm s – re en use tal ent Guid , re au eline cyc s for le, r dit sust edu aina ce ble t ouri sm Equity Company/organisation focus ba Gl p l im s act p im Sustainable Tourism Goal ts ac Local area identity focus Equity Guid e Loc lines for al c sust ont aina Ed rol ble t uc ouri ati To sm on u of Au ris hos tc th t/to e n ha r uri tic act st ity eri s ti cs s act ts mp pac y al i rit ultur l im a c teg loc In o cial/ tion/ a S stin De Small scale tourism A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 231 The completed framework Taken as a whole, the framework both structures and partially explains some of the conflicts and debates that have occurred in sustainable tourism.Although due regard should be given to the limitations of a framework based purely on a literature review and purporting to be complementary in nature rather than encompassing, it does present insights to past development whilst taking a view as to the direction of future advances. 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